[72], At the beginning of the binding, many of the foot bones would remain broken, often for years. Thought to have begun late in the Tang Dynasty (618-960), the practice of foot binding accelerated during the Song Dynasty (960-1297) and lasted over a thousand years. [110], The bound foot has played a prominent part in many media works, both Chinese and non-Chinese, modern and traditional. [38] In 1883, Kang Youwei founded the Anti-Footbinding Society near Canton to combat the practice, and anti-footbinding societies sprang up across the country, with membership for the movement claimed to reach 300,000. [37], Reform-minded Chinese intellectuals began to consider footbinding to be an aspect of their culture that needed to be eliminated. [3], The general view is that the practice is likely to have originated in the time of the 10th century Emperor Li Yu of the Southern Tang, just before the Song dynasty. The broken toes were held tightly against the sole of the foot while the foot was then drawn down straight with the leg and the arch of the foot was forcibly broken. The four smaller toes were tucked underneath, pulled toward the heel, and … They also became an avenue for poorer women to marry up in some areas; for example, in Sichuan. Mechanization resulted in women who worked at home facing a crisis. In the story, Pan Yunu, renowned for having delicate feet, performed a dance barefoot on a floor decorated with the design of a golden lotus, after which the Emperor, expressing admiration, said that "lotus springs from her every step!" [83] Some men found the smell of the bound feet attractive, and some also apparently believed that bound feet would cause layers of folds to develop in the vagina, and that the thighs would become sensuously heavier and the vagina tighter. [79] Therefore, people had greater expectations for foot-binding brides. She believed that women should emancipate themselves from oppression, that girls can ensure their independence through education, and that they should develop new mental and physical qualities fitting for the new era. However, foot binding was also a painful practice that significantly limited the mobility of women, resulting in lifelong disabilities for most of its subjects, including the inability to walk quickly and significant pain and discomfort while walking. [10][11] He observed that "women's footbinding began in recent times; it was not mentioned in any books from previous eras. This tale of a girl who lost her shoe and then married a king who sought the owner of the shoe as only her foot was small enough to fit the shoe contains elements of the European story of Cinderella, and is thought to be one of its antecedents. To enable the size of the feet to be reduced, the toes on each foot were curled under, then pressed with great force downward and squeezed into the sole of the foot until the toes broke.[34]. Patricia Ebrey, "Gender and Sinology: Shifting Western Interpretations of Footbinding, 1300–1890", "Painful Memories for China's Footbinding Survivors", "Marriage Mobility and Footbinding in Pre-1949 Rural China: A Reconsideration of Gender, Economics, and Meaning in Social Causation", "China's "Golden Lotus Feet" - Foot-binding Practice", "Feet and Fabrication: Footbinding and Early Twentieth-Century Rural Women's Labor in Shaanxi", "Bound by History: The Last of China's 'Lotus-Feet' Ladies", "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account", "The Tian Zu Hui (Natural Foot Society): Christian Women in China and the Fight against Footbinding", "1907: Qiu Jin, Chinese feminist and revolutionary", "The Art of Social Change: Campaigns against foot-binding and genital mutilation", Bodies under Siege: Self-mutilation, Nonsuicidal Self-injury, and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry, "In China, foot binding slowly slips into history", "Unbound: China's last 'lotus feet' – in pictures", "Traveling Across China to Tell the Story of a Generation of Women With Bound Feet", "Footloose in Fujian: Economic Correlates of Footbinding", "Consequences of foot binding among older women in Beijing, China", "Asian Origins of Cinderella: The Zhuang Storyteller of Guangxi", "Sociocultural Epistasis and Cultural Exaptation in Footbinding, Marriage Form, and Religious Practices in Early 20th-Century Taiwan", "Why Chinese Neo-Confucian Women Made a Fetish of Small Feet", "Foot-Binding in Neo-Confucian China and the Appropriation of Female Labor", "The Body as Attire: The Shifting Meanings of Footbinding in Seventeenth-Century China", "Revisiting Footbinding: The Evolution of the Body as Method in Modern Chinese History", "Children's Book Review: Ties That Bind, Ties That Break by Lensey Namioka", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foot_binding&oldid=995505930, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2007, All articles containing potentially dated statements, All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases, Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from November 2020, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, Berger, Elizabeth, Liping Yang, and Wa Ye. She argued that women, by retaining their small bound feet, made themselves subservient as it would mean women imprisoning themselves indoors. [4] The binding of feet was then replicated by other upper-class women, and the practice spread. The binding of feet, if done properly, was started when the girl was five or six years old. "[9][12][13], The earliest archaeological evidence for foot binding dates to the tombs of Huang Sheng, who died in 1243 at the age of 17, and Madame Zhou, who died in 1274. [35][36] It was also championed by the Woman's Christian Temperance Movement founded in 1883 and advocated by missionaries including Timothy Richard, who thought that Christianity could promote equality between the sexes. Her feet are bound till this day. [57], Foot binding was practiced in various forms and its prevalence varied in different regions. Another key function of foot-binding was that it was not convenient for women with bound feet to walk, thus it helped reduce the chance for women to betray their marriage through restricting their daily walking and freedom. [70], There are many interpretations to the practice of footbinding. [5] The practice became increasingly common among the gentry families, later spreading to the general population, as commoners and theatre actors alike adopted footbinding. [64], The Hakka people however were unusual among Han Chinese in not practicing foot binding at all. All rights go to the respectful owners. The tightness of the binding meant that the circulation in the feet was faulty, and the circulation to the toes was almost cut off, so any injuries to the toes were unlikely to heal and were likely to gradually worsen and lead to infected toes and rotting flesh. "[9] In the 13th century, scholar Che Ruoshui [zh] wrote the first known criticism of the practice: "Little girls not yet four or five years old, who have done nothing wrong, nevertheless are made to suffer unlimited pain to bind [their feet] small. It’s hard to know where to begin with a topic as painful and emotionally-charged as foot binding. In one version, the practice goes back to the earliest documented dynasty, the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BCE–1046 BCE). [38], Immediately after this procedure, the girl's broken toes were folded back under and the feet were rebound. my global studies class project. [108][109] Foot binding were common when women could do light industry, but where women were required to do heavy farm work they often did not bind their feet because it hindered physical work. At each pass around the foot, the binding cloth was tightened, pulling the ball of the foot and the heel together, causing the broken foot to fold at the arch, and pressing the toes underneath the sole. Foot binding was the Chinese custom of breaking and tightly binding the feet of young girls in order to change the shape and size of their feet; during the time it was practiced, bound feet were considered a status symbol and a mark of beauty. The manner of walking that foot binding necessitated was comprised of miniscule, mincing steps to avoid toppling over––a practice that ultimately tightened the pelvic muscles and inner thighs. Despite foot binding no longer being practiced, a number of Chinese women who had their feet bound are still alive, though As of 2007[update], this number had dwindled to only a small handful of elderly Chinese women. [2] Li Yu created a 6 feet (1.8 m) tall golden lotus decorated with precious stones and pearls, and asked his concubine Yao Niang (窅娘) to bind her feet in white silk into the shape of the crescent moon and perform a dance on the points of her feet on the lotus. [81], Some also considered bound feet to be intensely erotic, and Qing Dynasty sex manuals listed 48 different ways of playing with women's bound feet. Considered an attractive quality, the effects of the process were painful and permanent. [84] The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud considered footbinding to be a "perversion that corresponds to foot fetishism",[85] and that it appeased male castration anxiety. [69] Walking on bound feet necessitated bending the knees slightly and swaying to maintain proper movement and balance, a dainty walk that was also considered to be erotically attractive to some men. It has been estimated that by the 19th century, 40–50% of all Chinese women may have had bound feet, rising to almost 100% in upper-class Chinese women.[1]. In the late 20th century some feminists introduced positive overtones, arguing that it gave women a sense of mastery over their bodies, and pride in their beauty. [81], An erotic effect of the bound feet was the lotus gait, the tiny steps and swaying walk of a woman whose feet had been bound. Girls whose toes were more fleshy would sometimes have shards of glass or pieces of broken tiles inserted within the binding next to her feet and between her toes to cause injury and introduce infection deliberately. Jo Farrell speaks to Kristie Lu Stout about her mission to document China's last surviving women with bound feet. One of these involves the story of Pan Yunu, a favourite consort of the Southern Qi Emperor Xiao Baojuan. Widely used as a method to distinguish girls of the upper class from everyone else, and later as a way for the lower classes to improve their social prospects, the practice of foot-binding would c… [28] Coupled with changes in politics and people's consciousness, the practice of foot binding disappeared in China forever after two generations. Foot binding is often seen by feminists as an oppressive practice against women who were victims of a sexist culture. [46] Local warlords such as Yan Xishan in Shanxi engaged in their own sustained campaign against foot binding with feet inspectors and fines for those who continued with the practice,[45] while regional governments of the later Nanjing regime also enforced the ban. The foot binding process was long, excruciatingly painful and pretty gross. Cotton bandages, 3 m long and 5 cm wide (10 ft by 2 in), were prepared by soaking them in the blood and herb mixture. {Editorial note: modern Chinese footwear has been likened to “modern foot-binding” and can … The ideal bound foot was 3 inches long, the shape of a crescent moon, and covered by a tiny embroidered shoe. The practice foot binding in ancient China reflects the unique aesthetic standards and patriarchal social structures. [1] Bound feet became a mark of beauty and were also a prerequisite for finding a husband. [93] It has been noted that Confucian doctrine in fact prohibits mutilation of the body as people should not "injure even the hair and skin of the body received from mother and father". The body and labor of unmarried daughters belonged to their parents, thereby the boundaries between work and kinship for women are blurred. The feet were also soaked in a concoction that caused any necrotic flesh to fall off. [55][56] In 1999, the last shoe factory making lotus shoes, the Zhiqiang Shoe Factory in Harbin, closed. [1], Opposition to foot binding had been raised by some Chinese writers in the 18th century. [58][108], It has been argued that while the practice started out as a fashion, it persisted because it became an expression of Han identity after the Mongols invaded China in 1279, and later the Manchus' conquest in 1644, as it was then practiced only by Han women. [1], There are a number of stories about the origin of foot binding before its establishment during the Song dynasty. These scholars argued that the coming of the mechanized industry at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, such as the introduction of industrial textile processes, resulted in a loss of light handwork for women, removing a reason to maintain the practice. The Virtual Museum of The City of San Francisco, This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 11:57. Other stories say foot binding began during Tang times. When unbound, the broken feet were also kneaded to soften them and the soles of the girl's feet were often beaten to make the joints and broken bones more flexible. [53][54] By the 21st century, only a few elderly women in China still had bound feet. This muscular training was believed to prepare women for ideal lovemaking, thus, foot binding was upheld as a beautifying practice due to its perceived lurid implications. Han Qiaoni, from Yuxian County in northern China's Shanxi … It has been estimated that by the 19th century, 40-50 percent of all Chinese women may have had bound feet, and up to almost 100 percent among upper-class Han Chinese women. Foot binding lasted over 1,000 years in China and … This story may have given rise to the terms "golden lotus" or "lotus feet" used to describe bound feet; there is, however, no evidence that Consort Pan ever bound her feet. Share something you’ve done that you laughed at yourself. [2] Yao Niang's dance was said to be so graceful that others sought to imitate her. Foot binding began among the Han people. [87] It was claimed by Lin Yutang among others, probably based on an oral tradition, that Zhu Xi also promoted footbinding in Fujian as a way of encouraging chastity among women, that by restricting their movement it would help keep men and women separate. The bandages were repeatedly wound in a figure-eight movement, starting at the inside of the foot at the instep, then carried over the toes, under the foot, and around the heel, the freshly broken toes being pressed tightly into the sole of the foot. [16], The first European to mention footbinding was the Italian missionary Odoric of Pordenone in the 14th century, during the Yuan dynasty. A number of attempts were made throughout history to end the practice. [71] Most of the women receiving treatment did not go out often and are disabled. [28] However, many women with bound feet were still able to walk and work in the fields, albeit with greater limitations than their non-bound counterparts. [41][42] Many members of anti-footbinding groups pledged to not bind their daughters' feet nor to allow their sons to marry women with bound feet. However, once a foot had been crushed and bound, attempting to reverse the process by unbinding was painful,[70] and the shape could not be reversed without a woman undergoing the same pain all over again. [103] Thus, the practice ensured that women were much more reliant on their husbands. [34] In 1895, Christian women in Shanghai led by Alicia Little, formed the Natural Foot (tianzu, literally 'Heavenly Foot') Society. Furthermore, it is argued that Confucianism institutionalized the family system in which women are called upon to sacrifice themselves for the good of the family, a system that fostered such practice. Women with bound feet in one village in Yunnan Province even formed a regional dance troupe to perform for tourists in the late 20th century, though age has since forced the group to retire. Foot-binding reduced these points to only the big toe and heel bone; the arch was shoved up to make the foot shorter, and the other toes were bent under the ball. [80] The belief that footbinding made women more desirable to men is widely used as an explanation for the spread and persistence of footbinding. By the 19th century, it was estimated that 40–50% of Chinese women had bound feet, and among upper class Han Chinese women, the figure was almost 100%. introduced positive overtones, arguing that it gave women a sense of mastery over their bodies, and pride in their beauty. It is thought that as many as 10% of girls may have died from gangrene and other infections due to footbinding. Foot binding is believed to be spread from elite women to civilian women, and there are large differences in each region. Women with bound feet could not walk and had to totter about. Sometimes the accounts seem intended to rouse like-minded Chinese and foreign opinion to abolish the custom, and sometimes the accounts imply condescension or contempt for China. [28] It is thought that the necessity for women labour in the fields due to a longer crop-growing season in the South and the impracticability of bound feet working in wet rice fields limited the spread of the practice in the countryside of the South. I do not know what use this is. (AFP/Getty Images (AFP/Getty Images) Historian Dorothy Ko has argued that these feminists have mistakenly imposed late 20th-century middle-class Western ideals of individualism and agency on a highly traditional culture. By the Ming period, the practice was no longer the preserve of the gentry, and had instead become considered a status symbol. Bound feet also had a foul odor and left many young women hardly able to walk. Post was not sent - check your email addresses! [82] Howard Levy however suggests that the barely revealed bound foot may also only function as an initial tease. Feet altered by foot binding were known as lotus feet, and the shoes made for these feet were known as lotus shoes. [34], If the infection in the feet and toes entered the bones, it could cause them to soften, which could result in toes dropping off; however, this was seen as a benefit because the feet could then be bound even more tightly. [60] Footbinding was most common among women whose work involved domestic crafts and those in urban areas;[32] it was also more common in northern China where it was widely practiced by women of all social classes, but less so in parts of southern China such as Guangdong and Guangxi where it was largely a practice of women in the provincial capitals or among the gentry. Binding usually started during the winter months since the feet were more likely to be numb, and therefore the pain would not be as extreme. View themessymiddle’s profile on Facebook, View amy_young1234’s profile on Instagram, View messymiddleamy’s profile on Pinterest. [91][92] Modern Confucian scholars such as Tu Weiming also dispute any causal link between neo-Confucianism and footbinding. [19][20][21] As foot binding restricted the movement of a woman, one side effect of its rising popularity was the corresponding decline of the art of women's dance in China, and it became increasingly rare to hear about beauties and courtesans who were also great dancers after the Song era.[22][23]. Even after the foot bones had healed, they were prone to re-breaking repeatedly, especially when the girl was in her teenage years and her feet were still soft. According to Robert van Gulik, the bound feet were also considered the most intimate part of a woman's body; in erotic art of the Qing period where the genitalia may be shown, the bound feet were never depicted uncovered. [18] The practice, however, was encouraged by the Mongol rulers on their Chinese subjects. Sometimes, as in the case of Pearl Buck's The Good Earth (1931), the accounts are relatively neutral or empirical, implying a respect for Chinese culture (note however that Buck's previous novel, "East Wind: West Wind", extensively explores the unbinding of a woman's feet, experienced as frightening and painful yet finally empowering, as part of her transition into a new, more modern and more individualistic persona under her doctor husband's tender tutelage). If you want to know more the history of foot binding, you can check the below post: Facts about Chinese Foot Binding 1: the origin of foot binding. For example, they assume that the practice represented a woman's individual freedom to enjoy sexuality, despite lack of evidence. Foot binding resulted in the forward curvature of the lumbar vertebrae as a result of a woman struggling to balance and walk properly. Footbinding was first banned in 1912, but some continued binding their feet in secret. Many Han Chinese in the Inner City of Beijing also did not bind their feet, and it was reported in the mid-1800s that around 50-60% of non-banner women had unbound feet. It was believed that this difficulty walking caused the women to use more muscles in their inner thighs, hips, and pelvic regions. When the young girls had foot binding, they would experience a painful feeling during the process. Foot binding was outlawed in 1911 for all the deaths caused. This practice was called "toast to the golden lotus" and lasted until the late Qing dynasty. Foot-binding, due to its crippling effects, caused women to walk in shorter, more controlled steps. Summer Reading Challenge 2020 is Finished! [69], First, each foot would be soaked in a warm mixture of herbs and animal blood; this was intended to soften the foot and aid the binding. [24] In late 19th century Guangdong, it was customary to bind the feet of the eldest daughter of a lower-class family who was intended to be brought up as a lady. Despite the amount of care taken in regularly trimming the toenails, they would often in-grow, becoming infected and causing injuries to the toes. [112], Former Chinese custom of breaking and binding the feet of young girls, A Chinese woman showing her foot, image by. Foot binding, the cruel practice of mutilating the feet of young girls, was once pervasive in turn-of-the-century China, where it was seen as a sign of wealth and marriage eligibility. And thus foot binding became a symbol of chastity and eroticism. [100][101][102] Bound feet rendered women dependent on their families, particularly the men, as they became largely restricted to their homes. [58] They argued that foot binding was an instrumental means to reserve women to handwork, and can be seen as a way by mothers to tie their daughters down, train them in handwork and keep them close at hand. [106] It is a great significance in the development history of Chinese feminism. [98][99] It is also widely seen as a form of violence against women. Legend says that foot binding began in Shang times. The girl's broken feet required a great deal of care and attention, and they would be unbound regularly. Board `` history of foot binding process was long, the effects of the foot binding was outlawed 1911. Parents, thereby the boundaries between work and kinship for women foot binding walk.... Was normal for centuries, until being finally outlawed in 1911 for all the caused. 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Dorothy Ko, `` women and Manchu or other banner women of cloth that would.... Many interpretations to the earliest documented dynasty, some would also drink directly from the shoe itself many! Mobility of girls may have died from gangrene and other infections due to footbinding and pretty gross of... Home facing a crisis care and attention, and there are large differences in each region woman 's individual to... Female relatives first bound the girl was five or six years old during 10th or century!

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